|
As a member of the dialect continuum of Romance languages, Catalan evinces linguistic features similar to those of its closest neighbors (Occitan, Aragonese). The following features represent in some cases unique changes in the evolution of Catalan from Vulgar Latin; other features are common in other Romance-speaking areas. ==Phonology== Catalan is one of the Western Romance languages, which forms a dialect chain running across Spain from Portuguese through Leonese, Spanish, Aragonese, and Catalan. From there, the chain runs across the Pyrenees to various Occitan dialects: either northwest to Gascon and Lemosin, or north to Languedocien; then from Languedocien, either north to Auvernhat and eventually French, northeast to Franco-Provençal and the Rhaeto-Romance languages, or east through Provençal and across to Ligurian and the other Gallo-Italian languages. Catalan is most closely related to Occitan, and only diverged from it towards the end of the first millennium AD when the cultural ties with France were broken. In time, Catalan became more tied to the Ibero-Romance languages in Spain; because these languages are significantly more conservative than French (which has been the most important influence over Occitan in the last several hundred years), most of the differences between Catalan and Occitan are due to developments in Occitan that did not occur in Catalan. ;Common features with Western Romance languages, but not Italo-Romance: * Voicing (and lenition) of intervocalic --, --, -- into -''b''-, -''d''-, -''g''- ( 'goat' → ''cabra'', 'chain' → ''cadena'', 'safe' → ''segur''). * Loss of gemination in stop consonants. * Development of /ts/ (later /s/) instead of /tʃ/ from palatalized /k/. For example, ('sky, heaven') → Old Catalan ''cel'' → modern (cf. Italian ''cielo'' ). * Development of in , into palatal /j/ (vs. /tt/, /ss,ʃʃ/ in Italian). * Apicoalveolar pronunciation of /s/ and /z/. (This was once common to all Western Romance languages, but has since disappeared from French, some Occitan dialects, and Portuguese.) ;Common features with Gallo-Romance languages: * Loss of final unstressed vowels except - ( 'wall' → '' *muro'' → ''mur'', 'flower' → ''flor''); cf. the maintenance of all final vowels except - in Spanish and Portuguese, e.g. ''muro'' but ''flor''; Italo-Romance maintains all final vowels (Italian ''muro'', ''fiore''). The resulting final voiced obstruents undergo devoicing: ('cold') → ''fred'' or . However, final voiceless fricatives are voiced before vowels and voiced consonants (regressive voicing assimilation): ''els homes'' 'the men' ; ''peix bo'' 'good fish' . (The same final-obstruent devoicing occurs in all of the Western Romance languages to the extent that obstruents become final, but this is fairly rare in Ibero-Romance. Cf. Portuguese ''luz'' "light" vs. ''luzes'' "lights" , Old Spanish ''relox'' "(wrist) watch" vs. ''relojes'' "(wrist) watches" .) (Apparent maintenance of ''-o'' in first-person singular and ''-os'' plurals are likely secondary developments: Old Catalan had no first-person singular ''-o'', and ''-os'' plurals occur where they are etymologically unjustified, e.g. ''peixos'' "fishes" < PISCĒS, cf. Portuguese ''peixes''.) * Diphthongization of and before palatal consonants (with subsequent loss of middle vowel if a triphthong is produced). Spanish and Portuguese instead raise the vowel to become mid-high; in Spanish, this prevents diphthongization. (But diphthongization between palatals does occur in Aragonese.) Latin 'thigh' → → ''cuixa'' (cf. French ''cuisse'' but Portuguese ''coxa''). Latin 'eight' → → ''vuit'' (cf. French ''huit'' but Portuguese ''oito'', Spanish ''ocho''; Old Occitan both ''ueit'' and ''och''). Latin 'bed' → → ''llit'' (cf. French ''lit'' but Portuguese ''leito'', Spanish ''lecho''; Old Occitan both ''lieig'' and ''leit''). * Preservation of initial -, -, - ( 'fold' → ''aplegar'' 'to reach', 'key' → ''clau'', 'flame' → ''flama''); cf. palatalization of these initial clusters in Spanish ''llegar'', ''llave'', ''llama'' Portuguese ''chegar'', ''chave'', ''chama''. In the Italo-Romance group this slenderization generally replaces the second consonant with -''i''- ; hence Italian ''piegare'', ''chiave'', ''fiamma''. ;Common features with Occitan, French, and Portuguese, but not Spanish: *Initial , , → → , rather than Spanish /j/. Sound is preserved in all cases, rather than lost in unstressed syllables: ('ice') → ''gel'' (cf. Spanish ''hielo'' ; but Portuguese ''gelo'', Occitan ''gel''). ('lay down') → '' *gieitar'' → ''gitar'' (cf. Spanish ''echar''; but Portuguese ''jeitar'', Occitan ''gitar'', French ''jeter''). *Old remains as modern or , rather than Spanish /x/. *Voiced sibilants remain as such, whereas in Spanish they merge into voiceless sibilants. *Initial /f/ remains as such, whereas in Spanish it becomes /h/ before a vowel (i.e. unless preceding /r/, /l/, /w/, /j/). (Gascon actually develops /f/ into /h/ in all circumstances, even before consonants or semi-vowels.) *Intervocalic (--, --), -- → ''ll'' rather than ''j'' ( Old Spanish, modern): 'wife' → ''muller'', 'ear' → ''orella'', 'old' → '. Cf. Spanish ''mujer, oreja, viejo'' (but Portuguese ''mulher, orelha, velho'', Occitan ''molher'', French ''oreille, vieil''). * Development of -- only to rather than further development to . Both Spanish and Middle Occitan have , but Gascon and Languedocian dialects near Catalan, French, and all other Ibero-Romance languages (Portuguese, Leonese, Aragonese) have . E.g. → '' *lleit'' → ''llet'' (Cf. Spanish ''leche'', Southern Occitan ''lach'', Northern Occitan ''lait'', Occitan near Catalan ''lèit'', French ''lait'', Portuguese ''leite''). ;Common features with Occitano-Romance languages: * Preservation of Vulgar Latin stressed -- and -- (short ⟨ĕ⟩ and ⟨ŏ⟩), and respectively ( 'land' → ''terra'', 'honey' → ''mel'', 'fire'→ ''foc'' , 'ox'→ ''bou'' ); cf. Spanish diphthongs in ''tierra'', ''miel'', ''fuego'', ''buey''. French diphthongizes in open syllables, hence ''miel'', Old French ''buef'' (modern ''boeuf'' , but ''terre'' without diphthong). This same preservation also occurred in Portuguese (''terra'', ''mel'', ''fogo'', ''boi''). Note also that Occitan, but not Catalan, diphthongizes these vowels before velar consonants, i.e. : ''terra'', ''mel'', but ''fuec'', ''bueu''. * Development of late-final into : 'ship' → ''nau'' (cf. Occitan ''nau'', French ''nef'', Old Spanish non-final ''nave''); 'brief' → ''breu'' (cf. Occitan ''breu'', French ''bref'', Old Spanish non-final ''breve''). * Loss of word-final (originally intervocalic) -: ('bread') → ''pa'', ('wine') → ''vi''. (In some Occitan dialects, e.g. Provençal, the consonant was not lost.) Unlike in Languedoc and Northern Catalan, plural forms conserve this : ''pans'', ''vins''. * Merger of Proto-Western-Romance (from intervocalic --) and /dz/ (from intervocalic --, --, --). The result was originally /z/ or /dz/, still preserved in Occitan and partly in Old Catalan, but in modern Catalan now developed to /w/ or lost. ;Common features with Spanish but not Occitan: * Preservation of Western Romance /u/ and /o/ as and , rather than Gallo-Romance and , respectively (also in Portuguese). Latin ( 'moon' → ''lluna'' or , Occitan ''luna'' , French ''lune'' . Latin ( 'double' → ''doble'' or , Spanish ''doble'' , Occitan ''doble'' , French ''double'' . * Development of -- to /ɔ,e/ rather than preservation as /au,ai/ (but Portuguese has /ou,ei/). E.g. 'cabbage' → ''col'', 'not much' → ''poc''. (Same development occurred in French.) * Palatalization of -- /ks/, -- /skj/, -- /ssj/ to (also in Portuguese). Latin 'thigh' → ''cuixa'', Portuguese ''coxa'' vs. French ''cuisse''. Latin 'to loosen' (later 'to let') → Catalan and Portuguese ''deixar'', Old Spanish ''dexar'', but French ''laisser'', Old Occitan ''laisar''. Latin 'to lower' → Catalan and Portuguese ''baixar'', Old Spanish ''baxar'', but French ''baisser''. (In Occitan dialects near Catalan and Gascon, there is palatization too: ''baishar'', ''daishar''.) *Intervocalic -- → ''ll'' : ('horse') → ''cavall'' (cf. Spanish ''caballo'' with still preserved in conservative rural districts in Spain; Portuguese ''cavalo'', Occitan ''caval'', French ''cheval'', all with simple ). In a few cases, appears as a result of early simplification of -- after a long vowel: 'town' → ''vila''; 'star' → Western Catalan ''estrela'', Eastern ''estrella'' (cf. Spanish ''estrella'', Portuguese ''estrela'' < -- but French ''étoile'' < --). * Reduction of consonant cluster --''m'': 'leg' → ''cama'', 'loin' → ''llom'', → ''colom'' (cf. Spanish ''cama, lomo, paloma'' but Portuguese ''lombo, pombo/pomba''). Occurs in some Occitan dialects (Gascon and southern Languedoc). ;Features not in Spanish or (most of) Occitan, but found in other minority Romance languages: * Reduction of consonant cluster -- to -''n''- ( 'to stroll' → ''andar'' 'to go' → ''anar'', 'to send, to lead' → ''manar''). Compare reduction of -- to -''m''-. Also found in Gascon and southern Languedoc. * Palatalization of initial - ( 'moon' → ''lluna'', 'wolf' → ''llop''). This feature can be found as well in the Foix dialect of Occitan and in Astur-Leonese. * Palatalization of -- before -- to . Especially visible in verbs of the third conjugation (-) that took what was originally an inchoative infix (--/--), e.g. 'serves' (present tense, 3rd person singular indicative) → ''serveix/servix''. Found in Aragonese, Leonese, and in some Portuguese words. (In Portuguese, 'fish' → ''peixe'', 'to mix' → ''mexer'' 'to shake', but most verbs in end in ''(s)cer'', e.g. 'to grow' → ''crescer'', 'to be born' → ''nascer'', 'to offer' → ''oferecer''.) ;Unique features not found elsewhere: *Unusual development of early /(d)z/, resulting from merger of Proto-Western-Romance /ð/ (from intervocalic --) and /dz/ (from intervocalic --, --, --); see note above about a similar merger in Occitan. In early Old Catalan, became /w/ finally or before a consonant, remained as /(d)z/ between vowels. In later Old Catalan, /(d)z/ lost between vowels: * * 'foot' → ''peu'' * * 'cross' → ''creu'', 'he believes' → ''(ell) creu'' * * Verbs in second-person plural ending in -: 'you (pl.) look' → '' *miratz'' → ''mirau'' → ''mireu''/''mirau'' * * 'reason' → '' *razó'' → ''raó'' * * 'neighbor' → '' *vezí'' → ''veí'' * * 'to receive' → '' *rezebre'' → ''rebre'' *Partial reversal of Proto-Western-Romance /e/ and , according to the following stages: * * (1) Stressed /e/ → /ǝ/ in most circumstances * * (2) Stressed → /e/ in most circumstances * * (3) Stressed /ǝ/ maintained as such (in the Balearic Islands); /ǝ/ → (in Eastern, hence standard, Catalan); /ǝ/ → /e/ (in Western Catalan). *Secondary development of doubled resonant consonants (/ll/, /mm/, /nn/, ): ('week') → ''setmana'' , from ('skin') → ''cotna'' ('pork rind'), ('mold') → ''motlle''/''motle'' ('mold, a spring'). Later augmented by learned borrowings from Classical Latin (latinisms): ('athlete') → ''atleta'' , ('intelligent') → ''intel·ligent'' . Italian has doubled consonants of all sorts, but for the most part these represent direct preservations from Latin rather than secondary developments. Vulgar Latin geminate /ll/, /rr/, /nn/ and sometimes /mm/ develop differently in the various Western Romance languages from the corresponding single consonants, but in divergent ways, indicating that the geminate forms must have been preserved in the early medieval forms of these languages even after geminate obstruents were lost. Some dialects of Aragonese (a sister language to Catalan) still preserve /ll/ as the reflex of Latin /ll/. Catalan modern geminate resonants do not descend from these early medieval geminates (/ll/,/mm/,/nn/ → ), but the development of secondary geminate resonants may have been influenced by nearby dialects that still maintained the original geminates or by other secondary geminates that must have existed at one point (e.g. → proto-Western-Romance /doddze/, where the outcome of resulting /ddz/ is distinguished from single /dz/ in Catalan, Occitan and French and where the French outcome ''douze'', with no diphthongization, clearly indicates a geminate consonant). 抄文引用元・出典: フリー百科事典『 ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』 ■ウィキペディアで「Phonological history of Catalan」の詳細全文を読む スポンサード リンク
|